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We can calculate an atom's formal charge using the equation FC = VE - [LPE - (BE)], where VE = the number of valence electrons on the free atom, LPE = the number of lone pair electrons on the atom in the molecule, and BE = the number of bonding (shared) electrons around the atom in the molecule. > Draw a Lewis structure for SO2 in which all atoms obey the octet rule. Using Equation \ref{2.3.1} to calculate the formal charge on hydrogen, we obtain, \[\begin{align*} FC (H) &= (\text{1 valence electrons}) (\text{0 lone pair electrons}) \dfrac{1}{2} (\text{2 bonding electrons}) \\[4pt] &= 0 \end{align*} \]. In other words, carbon is tetravalent, meaning that it commonly forms four bonds. CO Formal charge, How to calculate it with images? Draw the best Lewis structure for CI_3^{-1}. Continuing with sulfur, we observe that in (a) the sulfur atom shares one bonding pair and has three lone pairs and has a total of six valence electrons. The formal charges can be calculated using the formula given below: The formal charge of an atom = [valence electrons of an atom non-bonding electrons (bonding electrons)]. It's also worth noting that an atom's formal charge differs from its actual charge. And the Boron has 8 valence electrons. 2.3: Formal Charges is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Steven Farmer, Dietmar Kennepohl, Layne Morsch, Krista Cunningham, Tim Soderberg, William Reusch, & William Reusch. All rights Reserved. How to Calculate formal Charge, Formal Charge formula, Trends of formal charge on the periodic table, and Deviations. Published By Vishal Goyal | Last updated: December 29, 2022. differentiate point & diffuse charges, ####### fc can be quickly determined by recognizing natural bonding preferences for neutral molecules & adjusting for deviation, ex : 6 elements from 2nd period As a member of the wwPDB, the RCSB PDB curates and annotates PDB data according to agreed upon standards. d. HCN. Create three research questions that would be appropriate for a historical analysis essay, keeping in mind the characteristics of a critical r, Leadership class , week 3 executive summary, I am doing my essay on the Ted Talk titaled How One Photo Captured a Humanitie Crisis https, School-Plan - School Plan of San Juan Integrated School, SEC-502-RS-Dispositions Self-Assessment Survey T3 (1), Techniques DE Separation ET Analyse EN Biochimi 1, NOT the same as electroplate or nucleopllclty #, Btn GRP 3 H - C : copyright 2003-2023 Homework.Study.com. Let's apply it to :CH3 (one to the right from BH4) The number of valence electrons for carbonis 4. Structure of NO 2 - is: Step 1: Formal charge of Nitrogen. e. NCO^-. :O-S-O: It has a formal charge of 5- (8/2) = +1. Write the Lewis Structure with formal charge of SCI2. If it has a positive one, on the other hand, it is more likely to take electrons (an electrophile), and that atom is more likely to be the reaction's site. Draw two possible structures, assign formal charges on all atoms in both, and decide which is the preferred arrangement of electrons. Draw and explain the Lewis structure of the most important resonance form of the ion ClO2-. Draw the Lewis dot structure for CH3NO2. The overall formal charge in ICl2- lewis structure is -1 which is equal to the charge on the ion(ICl2- molecule has one negative charged ion). Pay close attention to the neutral forms of the elements below because that is how they will appear most of the time. It is more important that students learn to easily identify atoms that have formal charges of zero, than it is to actually calculate the formal charge of every atom in an organic compound. Formula to Calculate the Formal Charge The formal charge on an atom in a molecule or ion is equal to the total number of valence electrons in the free atom minus the total number of electrons of lone pairs (non-bonding electrons) minus half of the total number of shared electrons bonding electrons. : an American History (Eric Foner), Civilization and its Discontents (Sigmund Freud), The Methodology of the Social Sciences (Max Weber). National Center for Biotechnology Information. How to calculate the formal charges on BH4 atoms? Do not include overall ion charges or formal charges in your drawing. HSO4- Formal charge, How to calculate it with images? bonded electrons/2=3. As you can tell from you answer options formal charge is important for this question so we will start there. :O: The formal charge is the difference between an atom's number of valence electrons in its neutral free state and the number allocated to that atom in a Lewis structure. The formal charge on the sulfur atom is therefore 6 - (6 + 2/2) = 1. Formal charges are important because they allow us to predict which Lewis structure is the most likely to exist in the real world.Get more chemistry help at www.Breslyn.org.Often you are given a compound with more than one possible Lewis structure. Formal charge is assigned to an atom in a molecule by assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity. It does not indicate any real charge separation in the molecule. Nitrogen has two major bonding patterns, both of which fulfill the octet rule: If a nitrogen has three bonds and a lone pair, it has a formal charge of zero. As a rule, though, all hydrogen atoms in organic molecules have one bond, and no formal charge. The structure of least energy is usually the one with minimal formal charge and most distributed real charge. What is the hyberdization of bh4? Draw a Lewis structure for BrO_4^(-), in which the octet rule is satisfied on all atoms. B:\ 3-0-0.5(8)=-1 Draw the Lewis structure of each of these molecules: \(\ce{CH3^{+}}\), \(\ce{NH2^{-}}\), \(\ce{CH3^{-}}\), \(\ce{NH4^{+}}\), \(\ce{BF4^{-}}\). It's only a courtesy that's utilized to make molecular structures and reaction mechanisms more understandable. Bonding electrons are divided equally between the two bonded atoms, so one electron from each bond goes to each atom. \\ Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules and ions. Draw the structures and assign formal charges, if applicable, to these structures. {/eq} ion? a. ClNO. How many resonance structures have a zero formal charge on all atoms? The formal charge of a molecule can indicate how it will behave during a process. Remaining electrons must then be calculated by subtracting the number of bonding electrons from the total valence electrons. These remaining electrons must be placed around atoms as lone pairs until they have a complete octet. Boron (B) possesses three valence electrons, zero non-bonded electrons, and four bonds around it. Remember that elements in the third row of the periodic table have d orbitals in their valence shell as well as s and p orbitals, and thus are not bound by the octet rule. ISBN: 9781337399074. Result: So formal charge = 4 - (2 +3) = 4 - 5 = -1. FC = V N B 2 FC = 5 - 2 - ( 6 2) FC = 5 - 5 FC = 0. Draw Lewis structures for IF5 and ClO^-, then calculate the formal charges on each atom. Show all valence electrons and all formal charges. the formal charge of carbon in ch3 is 0. valence electron=4. Also note that you should put the BF4- Lewis structure in brackets with as 1- on the outside to show that it is an ion with a negative one charge. This is Dr. B., and thanks for watching. Your email address will not be published. Determine the formal charge on the nitrogen atom in the following structure. c) good electrical conductor when molten d) good electrical conductor when solid e) moderately high melting point brittleness Quartz (SiO2) is a solid with a melting point of 1550 C. Now that we know what is the formal charge and we are familiar with the process for calculating a formal charge, we will learn about its importance. We have used 8 electrons to form the four single bonds. a point charge diffuse charge more . BUY. The following equation can calculate the formal charge of an atom in a molecule: FC = V - N - B/2 Where; V; the number of valence electrons in the ground state of the atom There is nothing inherently wrong with a formal charge on the central atom, though. or q) is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule in the covalent view of bonding, assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity. This condition could point to resonance structures, especially if the structures have the same atom arrangement but different types of arrangements of bonds. Write a Lewis formula for each of the following, assuming that the octet rule holds for the atoms. Formal Charge = Valence electrons on atom - # of bonds - lone pair electrons . ex : (octet If necessary, expand the octet on the central atom to lower formal charge. Formal charge on Cl atom of HClO4 ion: 7 8/2 0 = 3, Formal charge on S atom of HSO4- ion: 6 8/2 0 = 2. / - 4 bonds - 2 non bonding e / and the formal charge of O being -1 and the formal charge of O being -1 Postby vicenteruelos3 Mon Oct 30, 2017 12:57 am. And each carbon atom has a formal charge of zero. Structure (b) is preferred because the negative charge is on the more electronegative atom (N), and it has lower formal charges on each atom as compared to structure (c): 0, 1 versus 1+, 2. In the structures of methane, methanol, ethane, ethene, and ethyne, there are four bonds to the carbon atom. Draw a Lewis structure that obeys the octet rule for each of the following ions. Draw a Lewis structure for H3PO4 in which the octet rule is satisfied on all atoms and show all non-zero formal charges on all atoms. A boron (B) atom is present at the center, which is bonded to four atoms of hydrogen (H), one on each side, via a single covalent bond. 6. Draw a Lewis structure for the hydronium ion, including lone pairs and formal charges. Created by Sal Khan. The central atom is the element that has the most valence electrons, although this is not always the case. Bond polarization affects change in 131=4 greatly localized @ carbon diffuse charge .. | .. To illustrate this method, lets calculate the formal charge on the atoms in ammonia (\(\ce{NH3}\)) whose Lewis structure is as follows: A neutral nitrogen atom has five valence electrons (it is in group 15). c. N_2O (NNO). Write the Lewis structure for the Carbonate ion, CO_3^(2-). We can either take one electron pair from each oxygen to form a symmetrical structure or take both electron pairs from a single oxygen atom to give an asymmetrical structure: Both Lewis electron structures give all three atoms an octet. If the molecule has a charge, for every positive charge we must subtract one electron, and for every negative charge, we must add one electron. Borohydride | BH4- | CID 28123 - structure, chemical names, physical and chemical properties, classification, patents, literature, biological activities, safety/hazards/toxicity information, supplier lists, and more. This changes the formula to 3- (0+4), yielding a result of -1. Assign formal charges to all atoms. Carbon, the most important element for organic chemists. b. CO. c. HNO_3. (Image), Draw the resonance structures and using formal charge arguments, predict the best Lewis structure for each ion. Formal Charges: Calculating Formal Charge Wayne Breslyn 628K subscribers Subscribe 8.1K 865K views 9 years ago A step-by-step description on how to calculate formal charges. (b) The boron atom in BH 4- has sp 3 hybridization, and BH 4- has . There are, however, two ways to do this. Which atoms have a complete octet? :O-S-O: Do not consider ringed structures. identify and recognize the bonding patterns for atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the halogens that have a formal charge of zero. :O: giving you 0+0-2=-2, +4. The formal charge is then calculated using the equation: FC = VE - LP - 0.5BP, where FC is the formal charge, VE is the number of valence electrons, LP is the number of lone pairs of electrons, and BP is the bonding pairs of electrons. In (b), the nitrogen atom has a formal charge of 1. A) A Lewis structure in which there are no formal charges is preferred. In chemistry, The molecular dipole moment goes from positive to negativ View the full answer Transcribed image text: 1. Determine the formal charges of the nitrogen atoms in the following Lewis structures. -2 B. In these cases it is important to calculate formal charges to determine which structure is the best. Halogens in organic compounds usually are seen with one bond, three lone pairs, and a formal charge of zero. The formal charge on each atom can be calculated as, Formal charge (F.C) = Valence electrons (V) - Lone pair of electrons (L) - Bond pair of electrons (B)/2. 1. Often this is the case with elements like Sulfur or Phosphorus which can have more than eight valence electrons. Organic Chemistry Resonance Formal Charge 1 Answer anor277 Mar 26, 2018 Well, we normally represent sodium borohydride as N a+BH 4 . What is the formal charge on the central atom in this structure? Assume the atoms are arranged as shown below. From this, we get one negative charge on the ions. For the BF4- Lewis structure the total number of valence electrons (found on the periodic table) for the BF4- molecule. By changing the number of valence electrons the bonding characteristic of oxygen are now changed. While formal charges are merely a "formality," they are very important for the reactions mechanisms understanding. a) The B in BH4 b) iodine c) The B in BH3. The formal charges present on the bonded atoms in BH 4- can be calculated using the formula given below: V.E - N.E - B.E/2 Where - V.E = valence electrons of an atom N.E = non-bonding electrons, i.e., lone pairs B.E = bonding electrons What is the formal charge on central B-atom in [BH4]-? Write a Lewis structure for SO2-3 and ClO2-. Draw the Lewis structure (including resonance structures) for diazomethane (CH2N2). We aim to make complex subjects, like chemistry, approachable and enjoyable for everyone. and the formal charge of the single bonded O is -1 The formal charge can be calculated by excluding the number of electrons in the lone pairs and the number of bonds from the total number of valence electrons. We are showing how to find a formal charge of the species mentioned. Get access to this video and our entire Q&A library, Lewis Structures: Single, Double & Triple Bonds. Short Answer. Take the compound BH 4, or tetrahydrdoborate. {/eq} valence electrons. ####### Formal charge (fc) method of approximating charge distribution in a molecule, : Sort by: Top Voted Questions We calculate formal charge via the below-mentioned formula: Formal charge for Nitrogen atom = 5 - 0.5*6 - 2 = 0. Draw a Lewis structure for the nitrite ion, including lone pairs and formal charges. Sometimes, especially in the case of bromine, we will encounter reactive species in which the halogen has two bonds (usually in a three-membered ring), two lone pairs, and a formal charge of 1+. charge as so: document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Topblogtenz is a website dedicated to providing informative and engaging content related to the field of chemistry and science. Carbon is tetravalent in most organic molecules, but there are exceptions. (a) The boron atom in BF 3 has sp 2 hybridization, and BF 3 has trigonal planar geometry. O This is based on comparing the structure with . Draw the Lewis structure for the following ion. Remember, though, that formal charges do not represent the actual charges on atoms in a molecule or ion. Why was the decision Roe v. Wade important for feminists? 109 c. 120 d. 180 c which of the following elements has the highest electronegativity? Nonetheless, the idea of a proton will be very important when we discuss acid-base chemistry, and the idea of a hydride ion will become very important much later in the book when we discuss organic oxidation and reduction reactions. A Use the step-by-step procedure to write two plausible Lewis electron structures for SCN. ; You need to put brackets around the BF 4-Lewis structure as well as a negative charge to show that the structure is a negative ion. another WAY to find fc IS the following EQUATION : lone pair charge H , .. Write the formal charges on all atoms in \(\ce{BH4^{}}\). For BH 4 B H 4 , there are 3+(14) =7 3 + ( 1 4) = 7 valence electrons. This concept and the knowledge of what is formal charge' is vital. Our experts can answer your tough homework and study questions. Author: John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, John Townsend, David Treichel. If any resonance forms are present, show each one. If it has one bond and three lone pairs, as in hydroxide ion, it will have a formal charge of 1. Lewis structures are drawn to illustrate how atoms are bonded to each other via their valence electrons. Draw a lewis structure for the most important resonance form of the following ion, showing formal charges and oxidation numbers of the atoms, ClO^{-}_2. / A F A density at B is very different due to inactive effects HO called net. and . PubChem . Carbenes are a highly reactive species, in which a carbon atom has two bonds and one lone pair of electrons, giving it a formal charge of zero. Draw the Lewis structure with the lowest formal charges for the compound below. The following equation can be used to compute the formal charge of an atom in a molecule: V = Valence Electron of the neutral atom in isolation, L = Number of non-bonding valence electrons on this atom in the molecule, B = Total number of electrons shared in bonds with other atoms in the molecule. The above calculation shows that zero formal charges are present on each of the four H-atoms while a -1 formal charge on the central boron atom, which is also the overall formal charge present on the tetrahydroborate [BH4] ion, as shown below. 3. One last thing we need to do is put brackets around the ion to show that it has a negative charge. (a) ( C H 3 ) 3 S i H (b) S i O 4 4 (c) S i 2 H 6 (d) S i ( O H ) 4 (e) S i F 2 6. ex: H -. Draw the Lewis structure with a formal charge IF_4^-. Drawing the Lewis Structure for BF 4-. We'll place them around the Boron like this. Required fields are marked *. Such an ion would most likely carry a 1+ charge. A better way to draw it would be in adherence to the octet rule, i.e. Draw the Lewis dot structure for the covalent molecule NI3, adding formal charges where necessary. Formal charge is used when creating the Lewis structure of a To give the carbon atom an octet of electrons, we can convert two of the lone pairs on the oxygen atoms to bonding electron pairs. Then obtain the formal charges of the atoms. Therefore, calculating formal charges becomes essential. 1) Recreate the structure of the borohydride ion, BH4-, shown below. Difluorochloranium | ClF2+ | CID 23236026 - structure, chemical names, physical and chemical properties, classification, patents, literature, biological activities . c. CH_2O. charge the best way would be by having an atom have 0 as its formal A negative formal charge indicates that an atom is more likely to be the source of electrons in a reaction (a nucleophile). If they still do not have a complete octet then a double bond must be made. charge, Copyright 2023 StudeerSnel B.V., Keizersgracht 424, 1016 GC Amsterdam, KVK: 56829787, BTW: NL852321363B01, Campbell Biology (Jane B. Reece; Lisa A. Urry; Michael L. Cain; Steven A. Wasserman; Peter V. Minorsky), Forecasting, Time Series, and Regression (Richard T. O'Connell; Anne B. Koehler), Biological Science (Freeman Scott; Quillin Kim; Allison Lizabeth), Principles of Environmental Science (William P. Cunningham; Mary Ann Cunningham), Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing (Janice L. Hinkle; Kerry H. Cheever), Chemistry: The Central Science (Theodore E. Brown; H. Eugene H LeMay; Bruce E. Bursten; Catherine Murphy; Patrick Woodward), Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications (Gay L. R.; Mills Geoffrey E.; Airasian Peter W.), Business Law: Text and Cases (Kenneth W. Clarkson; Roger LeRoy Miller; Frank B. .. .. \\ 1.\ ClO_3^-\\ 2.\ ClO_4^-\\ 3.\ NO_3^-\\ 4.\ NH_4^+. is the difference between the valence electrons, unbound valence The formal charges present on the bonded atoms in BH4can be calculated using the formula given below: N.E = non-bonding electrons, i.e., lone pairs, Vishal Goyal is the founder of Topblogtenz, a comprehensive resource for students seeking guidance and support in their chemistry studies. The total number of valence electrons must be calculated by adding the group numbers of each atom of an element present in the compound. Write a Lewis structure for each of the following ions. Example molecule of interest. We'll put the Boron at the center. -. The oxygen has one non-bonding lone pair and three unpaired electrons which can be used to form bonds to three hydrogen atoms. The halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) are very important in laboratory and medicinal organic chemistry, but less common in naturally occurring organic molecules. Vedantu LIVE Online Master Classes is an incredibly personalized tutoring platform for you, while you are staying at your home. N3- Formal charge, How to calculate it with images? Take for example tetrahydridoborate $\ce {BH4-}$, the addition product of borane and hydride. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. So we've used all 8 valence electrons for the BH4 Lewis structure, and each of the atoms has a full outer shell. Evaluate all formal charges and show them. The fewer the formal charges present on the bonded atoms in a molecule (close to zero), the greater the stability of its Lewis structure. Other arrangements are oxygen with 1 bond and 3 lone pairs, that has a 1 formal charge, and oxygen with 3 bonds and 1 lone pair that has a formal charge of 1+. Draw a Lewis electron dot diagram for each of the following molecules and ions. Show non-bonding electrons and formal charges where appropriate. What is the formal charge on the hydrogen atom in HBr? National Library of Medicine. A step-by-step description on how to calculate formal charges. What are the formal charges on each of the atoms in the BH4- ion? """"" " "", 0 IS bonding like F, a deviation to the right, leading to a -, < Adding together the formal charges on the atoms should give us the total charge on the molecule or ion. Assign formal charges to each atom. Match each of the atoms below to their formal charges. E) HCO_3^-. If there are numerous alternatives for a molecule's structure, this gives us a hint: the one with the least/lowest formal charges is the ideal structure. Draw a lewis structure for BrO_4^- in which all atoms have the lowest formal changes. Draw a structure for each of the following ions; in each case, indicate which atom possesses the formal charge: (a) BH4 - (b) NH2 - (c) C2H5 * Ni 2. " ' OH _ These molecules are visualized, downloaded, and analyzed by users who range from students to specialized scientists. What is the formal charge on the N? Show all atoms, bonds, lone pairs, and formal charges. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. atom F Cl F VE 7 7 7 bonds 1 2 1 . The differences between formal charge and oxidation state led to the now widely followed and much more accurate, NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Social Science, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 10. Number of lone pair electrons = 4. BH4 c. CCl4 d.H2S b Which of the following compounds is an aldehyde? The common bonding pattern for hydrogen is easy: hydrogen atoms in organic molecules typically have only one bond, no unpaired electrons and a formal charge of zero. The formal charge on the B-atom in [BH4] is -1. A formal charge (\(FC\)) compares the number of electrons around a "neutral atom" (an atom not in a molecule) versus the number of electrons around an atom in a molecule. Be sure to include the formal charges and lone pair electrons on each atom. Now let us use this formula to calculate the formal charges in the most preferred Lewis structure of [BH4]. A. Therefore, nitrogen must have a formal charge of +4. OH- Formal charge, How to calculate it with images? (a) Determine the formal charge of oxygen in the following structure. The best possible Lewis structure of a molecule or molecular ion is the one in which the bonded atoms carry formal charges as close to zero as possible. Write the Lewis structure for the Formate ion, HCOO^-. .. formal charge= valence electrons - (lone pair electrons + bonds) 6- (4+2) = 0. Where: FC = Formal Charge on Atom. This knowledge is also useful in describing several phenomena. here the formal charge of S is 0 is the difference between the valence electrons, unbound valence Draw a Lewis structure for the hydrogen carbonate ion, including lone pairs and formal charges. Draw the Lewis structure with a formal charge BrF_3. A teacher walks into the Classroom and says If only Yesterday was Tomorrow Today would have been a Saturday Which Day did the Teacher make this Statement? a You should certainly use the methods you have learned to check that these formal charges are correct for the examples given above. We'll put 2 between atoms to form chemical bonds--we've used 6, and we've used all our valence electrons. LPE 6 4 6. Draw one valid Lewis structure (including all lone pair electrons and any formal charges) for CH_2N_2. Write the Lewis Structure with formal charge of NF4+. ClO3-. {/eq} valence electrons. Be sure to include the formal charge on the B atom (-1). I > " In (c), the sulfur atom has a formal charge of 1+. Draw a Lewis structure (including all lone pair electrons) and calculate the formal charge (FC) of each atom of nitrosyl chloride (ClNO) FC on Cl FC on N FC on O. The exceptions to this rule are the proton, H+, the hydride ion, H-, and the hydrogen radical, H.. A formal charge (F.C. C) CN^-. So that's the Lewis structure for BH4-, the tetrahydroborate ion. Write the Lewis structure of [ I C l 4 ] . These rules, if learned and internalized so that you dont even need to think about them, will allow you to draw large organic structures, complete with formal charges, quite quickly. What are the formal charges on each of the atoms in the {eq}BH_4^- The sum of the formal charges of each atom must be equal to the overall charge of the molecule or ion. nonbinding e 2013 Wayne Breslyn. H3O+ Formal charge, How to calculate it with images? The formal charge on the hydrogen atom in HBr is 0 What is the formal. Formal charge of Nitrogen is. What is the electron-pair geometry for. What is the formal charge on the central Cl atom? Draw the Lewis structure for the ammonium ion. a. CO b. SO_4^- c.NH_4^+. The most preferred Lewis representation of tetrahydroborate [BH4] is as shown below. LP = Lone Pair Electrons. BH4 possesses no non-bond electrons, three valence electrons for boron, and four bonds around the boron atom. Thus you need to make sure you master the skill of quickly finding the formal charge. Determine the formal charge of the nitrogen atom and the oxidation state of this nitrogen atom. For the BF4- Lewis structure the total number of valence electrons (found on the periodic table) for the BF4- molecule. 2. Draw and explain the Lewis structure for Cl3-. .. | .. Let's look at an example. Draw three Lewis electron structures for \(\ce{CNO^{}}\) and use formal charges to predict which is more stable. Once we know how many valence electrons there are in BF4- we can distribute them around the central atom with the goal of filling the outer shells of each atom. He holds a degree in B.Tech (Chemical Engineering) and has four years of experience as a chemistry tutor.

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